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A parasite lives by taking all the needs of its life from another living organism, often becoming highly specialised for this interaction. Where possible, host organisms will avoid, repel or destroy parasites, while the parasites will evolve survival strategies in response to these defence mechanisms. Since the parasite will usually reproduce faster than its host, it is harder for the host to adapt than the parasite. However, because it is not in the parasite's interest to kill its host, they frequently adapt to minimise damage to their host. There is a wide range of host-parasite interactions some of which cannot be clearly defined as parasitic.
A number of parasites attack adult or larval honey bees, some of which cause serious difficulties for survival of the colony. The most common parasites of honey bees are members of the mite family, but other minor parasites are found worldwide from other groups including protozoans (such as amoeba) flies, nematodes and beetles.
Acarine mites (often called tracheal mites) infect the trachea (or breathing tubes) of the adult honey bee having serious effects on the individual bees' capacity to breathe and consequently on the whole colony's ability to collect honey, thermoregulate and respire. In susceptible colonies they can cause high mortality rates.
Varroa mites (Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsonii) are relatively large mites observable with the naked eye. Varroa destructor causes great damage to colonies of Apis mellifera by parasitising both adult and larval stages of the honey bee. It appears to have crossed the species barrier, from the Asian hive bee Apis cerana to the honey bee Apis mellifera which has evolved no defences against this parasite. This has caused devastating losses of Apis mellifera honey bee colonies in many countiries. However there is some evidence that the Africa and Africanised honeybees have some inherent defence against the Varroa mite although the basis of this is not yet clear. The mites are the vector of a range of viruses that are often benign and symptomless until they are combined with a Varroa mite infestation.
Tropilaelaps is another mite with a similar life history to Varroa. Its native hosts are the Asian honey bee species and with the globalisation of beekeeping, there is potential for this mite also to cross the species barrier into Apis mellifera with unknown consequences.
List of Articles available on this topic (80):
Title | Author |
A cautionary tale of formic acid . . . | Sheppard, S. |
A radical solution; Varroa damage | Bleasdale, J. |
A safe method of detecting Varroa- resistant colonies | Markthaler, G. |
A Scientific Note on Varroa Destructor found in East Africa; Threat or Opportunity? | M. Frazier, E. Muli, T. Conklin, D. Schmehl, B. Torto, J. Frazier, J. Tumlinson, J. Evans, S. Raina |
A study of the effects of hive colours and hive temperatures | Marden, P.L. |
A varroa treatment without chemicals | Hes, A. & Oakes, L. |
Adventures in beekeeping - stalking Asian mites | Peterson, P. |
All about Acarine | Pam Gregory. MSc,NDB |
An evaluation of ARS russian honey bees in combination with other methods for the control of Varroa mites | Rinderer, T.E., De Guzman, L.I., Delatte, G.T. and Harper, C. |
An experiment in the efficacy of fogged mineral oil | Gillard, G.F.C. |
Associaton of Varroa jacobsoni and Thai sac brood virus disease of Apis cerana in Karnataka | Swamy. H. and Rajagopal, D. |
Beekeeping issues -status of new Varroa control compounds | Elzen, P.J. |
Beekeeping Issues: alternative Varroa control experiments | Elzen, P.J. |
Beekeeping issues: Varroa control | Elzen, P.J. |
Beetle versus Bee: the dramatic story of a cunning parasite | Kastberger, G. & Winder, O. |
Breakthrough in Varroa tolerance | Andros, C.F. |
Caribbean Update : Antigua and Barbuda | Richards, A. |
Damaged Varroa mites on the debris of different honey bee subspecies under semiarid mediterranean conditions | Al-ghaza, A.M.A., Azrroun, S. and Shannag, H.K. |
Deformed wing virus in bees and Varroa destructor | Coffey, M. |
Diseases and pests information from USDA | Mozer, T. |
Diseases of Honeybees: sub regional training seminar | World Organisation for Animal Health OiE |
Does fogging kill mites of just knock them off the bees temporarily? | Brachmann, B. |
Evaluation of selected biopesticides for the late fall control of Varroa mites in northern temperate climate | Stranhellini, M.S., Raybold, P. |
FGMO-Thymol application improved for Varroa mite control | Rodriguez, P.P. and Harris, C.E. |
Field trials with different thymol-based products for the control of Varroosis | Baggio, A., Arculeo, P., Nanetti, A., Marinelle, E. and Mutinellia, F. |
Food grade mineral oil - thymol widen alternatives for honey bee parasite control | Rodriguez, P., Harris, C.E. |
Food grade mineral oil for varroa control | Delaplane, K. |
Food grade mineral oil for varroa control - an association of professional apiculturists discussion | Delaplane, K. |
Globa honey bee disorders and other threats to insect pollinators | Kluser, S.; Neumann, P.; Chauzat, M; Pettis, J. |
Healthy bees | Brachmen, B |
Heay honey bee looses in Europe | Charriere, J.D. and Imdorf, A. |
Hidden allies of Varroa | Davidson,G., Birchall, C., Pell, J., Ball, B. and Chandler, D. |
Honey bee biology: Varroa mites: some historical perspectives | Mangum, W. |
Honey Bee Pests, Predators and Diseases | Morse, R ed |
Honeybee mites and their control - a selected annotated bibliography | FAO |
Honeybee Pests, Predators, and Diseases | Morse, R.A. & Nowogrodzki |
How Apis cerana keep Varroa in check | Boecking, O. |
Imported Russian honey bees: quarantine and initial selection for Varroa resistance | Harris, J., Rinderer, T., Kuznetsov, V., Danka, R., Delatte, G. and de Guzman, L. |
Integrated pest management for the parasitic mite Varroa destructor (Anderson and Trueman) in colonies of honey bees (Apis melifera) | Rice, N.D., Winston, M.L. and Higo, H.A. |
Integrated pest management in beekeeping | Aston, D. |
Legalisation of the use of Oxalic acid in Varroa control | Rademacher, E. and Imdorf, A. |
Living with Varroa Jabobsoni | DARG |
Managing Varroa | DEFRA |
Microbial control of Varroa | Quinlan, J. |
Mighty mites part II | Davis, C. |
Mite tolerance in honey bees | Sanford, M.T. |
Mites of the Honey Bee | Delaplane, K & Webster, T (eds) |
My bee operation before Varroa mites | Mangum, W.A. |
New Varroa control product to be launched in the United Kingdom | Kemp, G. |
Newly recorded parasitic fly of honey bees in Sabah, Malaysia | Tingek, S., Koeniger, G. and Koeniger, N. |
Notes on Apis dorsata and Tropilarlaps clarae in Burma | Maung Maung Nyein |
Oxalic acid treatment by trickling against Varroa destructor: recommendations for use in central Europe and under tremperate for honey bee mites | Charriere, J.D., Imdorf, A. |
Parasite-host Intereations Between the Varroa mite and the Honey Bee | Calis, J N M |
Research on fungus as a treatment for Varroa | Sheppard, S. |
Saving bees: fungus found to attack varroa mites | Flores, A. |
Sick bees - pathogens and pests | Oliver,R. |
SMR- this honey of a trait protects bees from from deadly mites | Peabody, E. |
The effect of co-mingled Russian and Italian honey bee stocks and sunny or shaded apiaries on Varroa mite infestation level, worker bee population and honey production | Rinderer, T.E., Guzman, L.I. Harper, C. |
The integration dap - what can be done to provide more reliable, comprehensive and global information to beekeepers about IPM methods? | Winston, M. |
The potential for using male selection in breeding honey bees resistant to Varroa destructor | Jandricic, S.E. and Otis, G.W. |
The status of formic acid in the US | Ruzicka, B. |
The \'how to\' of resistance testing | National bee unit |
Thymol versus pyrethroids | Waite, R. |
Use of sucrose octanoate esters to control the parasitic honey bee mite Varroa destructor | Sheppard, W.S., Gardner, M., Hasher, S., Kahkonan, B., Meixner, M.D. and Strange, J.P. |
Use of tobacco smoke against parasitic mite syndrome | Behnam, O. |
Using and artificial swam to control Varroa | Ball, R. |
Varroa | - |
Varroa control | Bees for Development |
Varroa control with fungal pathogens | Kanga, L.H.B. |
Varroa destroys Apis mellifera | Shah, F. |
Varroa found in South Island, New Zealand | Waring, C. |
Varroa in New Zealand: South Island update | Munn, P. |
Varroa in Nigeria | Bees for Development |
Varroa jacobsoni and Apis cerana in the Solomon Islands | Hardie, P. & Cooper, K. |
Varroa problems | Bees for Development |
Varroa tolerance in France of Intermissa bees from Tunisia and their naturally mated descendants: 1993-2004 | Kefuss, J., Vanpouke, J., De lahitte, J.D. and Ritter, W. |
VARROA! | Bees for Development |
Varroa-resistant bees possible | Phipps, J. |
What is in a name? Mites made easy | Peterson, S. |
Why the bees are dying | Graf, J. |